Thinking about a PhD? Make sure you love research first.
A PhD means years of research, usually on one question. Here's how admission and funding work in the U.S., the UK, and Europe.
Written for the 2026–27 application year.
For programs starting in fall (autumn) 2027.
This year at a glance
Should I apply this winter?
Yes, if you've done research and want more of it. If you haven't tried it yet, do a research master's or a research job first.
What matters most, in our view
Research you've actually done, and recommenders who saw you do it. What counts most ↓
One thing this month
Ask your recommenders now: the U.S. programs in this guide close between December 1 and 15, 2026. Three systems ↓
Can wait, in our view
Formally choosing a supervisor, in the U.S.: Stanford's engineering students try a few research groups first, and Harvard's economics students are matched in year two. Your supervisor ↓
Programs can change their dates and rules during the year. Check each program's own page.
A PhD trains you to do research. For depth in one field without a research career, read the Master's guide.
A career in research→A PhD. In the UK and Europe, often after a research master's.You're here→?Have you done research, and do you want more of it?
Research, but you haven't tried it yet→A research master's, or a paid research job, first.Try research first ↓→?Would a year or two of research show you whether a PhD is right?
Depth in one field, such as policy, computing, health, law, or planning→A specialized master's.Read the Master's guide →→?Does the program teach the work you want to do?
Three systems
Applying abroad? In the U.S. and Europe, funding usually comes with your place. In the UK, you often compete for it.
Our European examples are the European University Institute (EUI), the University of Bonn, ETH Zurich, and the Delft University of Technology (TU Delft).
How long each route takes, in years
How long each route takes, in years after your bachelor's. U.S. economics at Harvard and Columbia: usually six. Stanford electrical engineering: five to seven, with no master's required. Oxford economics: a rigorous master's first, such as Oxford's two-year MPhil, then three to four years. Cambridge engineering: three to four, with no master's required. The EUI: four years, usually after a master's, since most of the national grants that fund its students require one. Bonn: from a bachelor's, a two-year master's, then a three-year PhD.
Years after your bachelor's
01234567
U.S.: Harvard and Columbia economics
PhD
Usually six years.
U.S.: Stanford electrical engineering
PhD
Five to seven years. A master's isn't required.
UK: Oxford economics
Master'sDPhil
A rigorous master's first, such as Oxford's two-year MPhil, then three to four years.
UK: Cambridge engineering
PhD
Three to four years. A master's isn't required.
Europe: the EUI
Master'sPhD
Four years, usually after a master's: most of the national grants that fund its students require one.
Europe: Bonn
Master'sPhD
From a bachelor's: a two-year master's, then a three-year PhD.
Each master's bar shows two years, the length at Oxford and Bonn. The thinner bars show the extra time some students take.
The U.S., the UK, and Europe
Compare
The U.S. (four programs)
The UK
Europe
When you apply
December 1 to 15, 2026
Oxford economics: January 26, 2027. Cambridge engineering: apply by December 8, 2026, for funding
Economics: once a year, by January 15. Engineering: when a paid PhD position is advertised
Funding
Tuition and a stipend (pay to live on) while you make progress; in Stanford electrical engineering, from your adviser's grants after year one
Fees and living costs, if you win funding. International students may pay the difference between the local and international fee
Grants (EUI, Bonn), or a salaried research job (ETH, TU Delft)
Choosing a supervisor
After you arrive (Harvard economics, Stanford electrical engineering)
Cambridge: name one when you apply. Oxford: the department assigns one
ETH: a professor must agree to take you
Examples
HarvardColumbiaStanford
OxfordCambridge
EUIBonnETH ZurichTU Delft
Ask each program how many students it admits, and how many it funds.
Haven't tried research yet? Try it before you commit years to it.
No master's, whatever it's called, gets you into a PhD automatically. The exception is an integrated route: at Oxford, a strong Master of Philosophy (MPhil) in Economics leads to the DPhil, Oxford's name for a PhD.
What a degree's title can mean, at Oxford and Cambridge
MSc (Master of Science)→At Oxford, course-based or by research.→?Is there a research project?
MPhil→At Cambridge, 9 to 12 months, course-based or by research. At Oxford, most MPhils last two years.→?Does it end in a thesis?
MRes (Master of Research)→At Cambridge, usually the first year of a four-year doctorate.→?What do you need to continue?
PhD or DPhil→Three to four years, with a formal progress check early on.→?Who will supervise you?
Here are two related stories from our master's students.
M.C. chose a master's to find out whether a PhD was right for him.
He chose Oxford's two-year MPhil in Economics. Its dissertation, his own research, would show whether doctoral study should become a commitment.
I.B. showed she was serious without promising a PhD.
A research route could support later doctoral work, and a professional one could take her back to product development sooner. She chose a program whose funding didn't require an immediate commitment to a PhD.
Show research you've done, and ask the people who saw you do it to recommend you.
What three programs ask for, in their own words
ResearchHarvard economics asks applicants to “demonstrate their ability to do research.”
A master'sOxford's economics DPhil expects “an outstanding performance in a rigorous master's course in economics.”
Technical depthStanford electrical engineering asks for a “strong technical background in engineering, physical sciences, or mathematics.”
Research can be a thesis of your own: our student M.C.'s undergraduate thesis became the writing sample for his master's applications. In economics, strong math counts too, and some graduates first spend about two years in a paid research job, a “pre-doc.”
Choosing a supervisor? Look at their lab, their funding, and where their students go next.
Their lab
Read their recent papers, and ask their students how the group works.
Their funding
Ask whether their grants can pay you after year one.
Their students
See where their recent PhD students went next.
Should you email a supervisor before applying? Only where the program expects it. ETH Zurich does: a professor must agree to take you. Cambridge engineering says you're “not expected to make contact” first, and Columbia economics holds no individual meetings before admission.
Your statement and your recommendersStart your statement with a question you want to answer, and write every sentence yourself.Every sentenceyours: our rule
Explain the question, and how you'd go about answering it.
Harvard Griffin GSAS, the Harvard school for master's and PhD programs in the arts and sciences, lets others only “suggest minor edits or … identify grammatical errors.” So that's all our mentors do on GSAS statements. Everywhere else, we ask questions and give advice, but you still write every sentence.
Ask recommenders who have seen your research.
Who to askEach program's admissions office, about statements and outside help. Its application instructions set the rules.
Using AI (artificial intelligence): our rule
Using AI to
Our rule
Brainstorm ideas
Yes, if the program allows it
Check your grammar and spelling
Yes, if the program allows it
Write or rewrite your sentences
Never
Each program's own rules come first. Some allow less.
Got a funding offer? Read what's guaranteed, for how long, and on what terms.
Read the years closely: what three packages cover
Funding by year. Harvard economics, a typical package: funded for years one to four and for the year you finish; in any year in between, Harvard usually covers tuition and fees, but not your pay. Columbia economics: six years of pay and five summers, while you make progress. Stanford electrical engineering: usually a department fellowship in year one, then pay from your adviser's grants while they have funds.
Year 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5Year 6
Harvard economics, a typical package
FundedFees coveredFunded
Funded for four years and for the year you finish. In any year in between, Harvard usually covers tuition and fees, but not your pay.
Columbia economics
Funded
Six years of pay, plus five summers, while you make progress.
Stanford electrical engineering
FundedYour adviser's grants
Usually a department fellowship in year one, then pay from your adviser's grants while they have funds.
Each school's general terms. Your own offer governs.
Want to stay and work afterward? The UK gives PhD graduates three years; the U.S., 12 months, plus up to 24 more in science, technology, engineering, and math. These rules change often, so check before you count on them.
Working after your degree: what to check, as of October 9, 2026
What each official page says
Country
Visa or permit
What the official page says
The U.S.
OPT (Optional Practical Training), permission to work after your degree
Up to 12 months
The U.S.
The STEM extension, for degrees on the U.S. list of science, technology, engineering, and math fields
We follow it with a personalized plan by email. Bring your academic résumé and the research you've done, and we'll talk through whether to apply this winter or do a master's first.
OxfordRead M.C.'s story →
Harvard
Columbia
Stanford
Cambridge
EUI
Bonn
ETH Zurich
TU Delft
Johns HopkinsRead I.B.'s story →